在同個時代，美國哲學家 Charles Sanders Peirce(1839-1914)也提出他的見解，稱為 ‘semiotics’, 他把符號分成三種形式: 圖象(icon)、象徵(symbol)、和指示(index)。
美國哲學家Charles William Morris(1901-1979)則提出‘semiosis’ ，將其分為三個範疇，即為語構學(syntactics)、語意學(semantics)、語用學 (pragmatics); 簡單的說，語構學是研究符號和使用者的關係，語意學研究符號和被暗示的物體的關係，而語用學則是研究符號和其他符號之間的關係。
1980年代早期，符號學分支出的語意學(semantics)理論被介紹到產品設計，新的名稱產品語意學(product semantics)因應而生。它強調的是產品和使用者之間溝通的重要性。
1984年，Krippendorff 協同 McCoy 等人，開始將產品語意引入工業設計，初始由美國 Cranbrook Academy of Art 在設計教育界推廣，加上飛利浦(Philips)戮力舉辦研討會、出版專書和發表新產品外觀，讓產品語意成為表達意義的產品語言系統。
1980年代 Cranbrook 設計學院的 McCoy和他的研究所學生們在作品中應用產品語意有很突出的表現。他們嚐試利用暗喻(metaphor)、類推(analogy)、明喻(simile)、諷喻(allegory)來創造科技產品和生活層面之間在視覺上的關連性。
Krippendorff (1990)以四理論: 使用(use)、語言(language)、生產(genesis)和生態學(ecology)來整體闡述產品語意，其核心理念是將設計師當作使用者與環境資訊的傳遞者，以外觀造形詮釋產品的功能意義，目的在於設計出自我表述(self-expression)的產品，使得設計者、使用者與產品形成和諧的三方關係。Krippendorff(1990)表示: “由於大量地誤解與偏用，產品語意學僅侷限於處理產品外觀的問題，使得符號學式的效應大多壟罩在產品範疇與表面圖像方面”。
產品語意學企圖想解決現代高科技產品在設計上特別的問題，尤其對設計本質而言，它的起源可以說是在質問領導設計主流已久的現代主義。現代主義提倡者提出著名的口號 ‘形隨機能而定’(form follows function) 把產品造形束搏在狹隘的科學式的 ‘緊身衣’ 內。當現代主義越來越普及，產品也逐漸成為一個個灰色或黑色的盒子，這些單調沈悶的產品失去他們造形上潛在的特色。的確，像 Niels Diffrient 所言:「現代主義的意義層面是透過材料、功能、製程來表達的，而無法表達人類互動間的微妙關係」。
80 年代至今，除了產品語意之外，尚有情感設計此重要議題，其發展可大致分為以日本為主的感性工學(Kansei engineering)和歐美國家所倡導的情感設計(emotion design)。
1970 年代從日本開始發展，感性(Kansei)是來自日語，其主要意涵為當人見到一項產品時心中經由腦內經驗累積所反應的意象，而感性工學就是把這種感覺應用於產品設計上，意圖將此感覺傳遞給使用者的一種技術。一般而言，感性工學分成三個步驟: (1)討論產品所給使用者的感覺，這樣的感覺通常都是以形容詞語彙來呈現的，並且將這些來自生理與心理的綜合感覺分類。(2)感性工學通常都會利用電腦技術來進行應用，通常來說都會有以下的四個資料庫，感性語彙資料庫、意象資料庫、知識資料庫、設計資料庫等。而利用如專家系統或是類神經的運算法可以藉由以上的資料庫來使輸入的語彙轉換成為產品來表達。(3)利用邏輯性的數學程式模組來進行感性語彙的解讀，也就是說明了根據相同的法則可以得到相同的結果。
重要的先驅學者 Norman (1988)出版“The Psychology of Everyday Things”，以認知觀點加重了功能方面的理性實用與可用性的設計，強調產品功能皆應使人一眼就懂。使用者依順設計者的規劃，能直覺無誤的操作，而避開錯誤。此種論點，常因批判使用性不佳或過於強調造形的產品，而抹煞了產品的審美與情感價值。Norman (2004) 在“Emotional Design”的序文表示:“設計師對我提出有價值的批評:“如果我們照著 Norman 的方式，我們的設計是可以用，但也會很難看。”此書揭露了由於人們對形體的喜好以及情感連結，產品可藉由美觀引起情感而提升效率，使得有吸引力的物品比較好用。
另一項設計情感架構為 Patrick Jordan(2000)闡述的使用者需求層次(hierarchy of consumer needs)， 依序區分為:機能性(functionality)、使用性(usability)、愉悅性(pleasure)。產品要具備機能效益和情感效益，設計師除了瞭解人們如何使用產品，更要了解產品在生活中扮演哪些角色，將引發情感的角色因素納入設計層面;目的在於創造愉悅性的產品或評估產品愉悅性的方法。他再引用加拿大人類學家 Tiger Lin(1992, pp. 52-60)的論述，將愉悅性細分為:生理愉悅(physio-pleasure)、社會愉悅 (socio-pleasure)、精神愉悅(psycho-pleasure)，意識愉悅(ideo-pleasure)，形成層次分明的架構。
在語意研究的領域，Philips Design 坐擁產品語意的經驗優勢，自 Vision of Future 計畫之後，2000 年的互動式概念設計 Living Memory 計畫開啟了Philips Design 實體互動的一系列研究。2005年第一個針對造形與動作語意的設計學術研討會 DeSForM(Design and semantics of form and movement) 目的在於探究並應用造形、色彩、行為整合而成的設計語言，針對使用者動作、產品造形、語意詮釋與環境脈絡進行跨領域研究，以實體互動所產生的語意為主軸對設計實務進行探討。
Semiotics is the study of signs, and semantics is the study of their meaning. In product semantics, these linguistic concepts are used to describe design. Applied to design, the product is the sign, and it concerns how designers encode meaning into their products, and how they communicate with the user.
Product qualities are categorized in “physical”, “social” and “symbolic”. Physical qualities relate to function, form, size, motion, and material. Social qualities relate to forms of interactions, rites, conventions, and intersubjective relationships. Symbolic qualities relate to meanings, concepts, beliefs, symbols and signs ((Parsons, T., The social system, 1951).
Product semantics, the “study of the symbolic qualities of man-made forms in the context of their use, and application of this knowledge to industrial design” (Krippendorff and Butter, 1984) is an important challenge in product design.
Semantic differential method (SDM) (Osgood et al., 1957) consists in listing the semantic attributes of the product to analyze and carry out user-tests in which the user must assess the product according to these attributes. The attributes are often defined by pairs of antonymous adjectives which lie at either end of a qualitative scale.
語意差異法(Semantic Differential Method，簡稱 SD 法)是由 Charles E. Osgood 等人於 1942年提出，其目的在幫助研究人員了解意象感覺，通常被視為用來評估非計量性的資料，以特定項目在一定的評估尺度中作重要性的評量。SD 法是由被評估的事物、量尺、受測者等三個要素構成。第一個要素是選定被評估的對象。第二個要素是選擇適合的評價尺度，這些尺度 是由成對的對立形容詞所構成的，數目大約以 10-30 個較合適，而評價的等級，一般常用的 是五級和七級。第三個要素是受測者，也就是樣本，樣本數最少要 30 人，才能得到較穩定的資料。
Semantic differential method (SDM) (Osgood et al., 1957) consists in listing the semantic attributes of the product to analyze and carry out user-tests in which the user must assess the product according to these attributes. The attributes are often defined by pairs of antonymous adjectives which lie at either end of a qualitative scale.
語意差異法(Semantic Differential Method，簡稱 SD 法)是由 Charles E. Osgood 等人於 1942年提出，其目的在幫助研究人員了解意象感覺，通常被視為用來評估非計量性的資料，以特定項目在一定的評估尺度中作重要性的評量。SD 法是由被評估的事物、量尺、受測者等三個要素構成。第一個要素是選定被評估的對象。第二個要素是選擇適合的評價尺度，這些尺度 是由成對的對立形容詞所構成的，數目大約以 10-30 個較合適，而評價的等級，一般常用的 是五級和七級。第三個要素是受測者，也就是樣本，樣本數最少要 30 人，才能得到較穩定的資料。
Multidimensional scaling uses dissimilarity assessments to create a geometrical representation of the perceptual space related to a family of objects. This method, initially developed for psychometric analysis (Shepard et al., 1972), is a process whereby a distance matrix among a set of stimuli is translated into a representation of these stimuli within a perceptual space.
Starting in the 70s, Gros and Fischer developed the Offenbach theory of product language. In this theory semantics refers to how design explains what a product is, as well as their symbolic associations. They are named the indicating and symbol functions.
One of the first companies to actively apply product semantics was Philips in the 1980s. A successful product of this strategy was the “Rolling Radio”, where the designers focused on communicating its mobility with speaker grills shaped like moving soundwaves and a passing resemblance to a motorcycle.
The theory of affordance was developed independently from product semantics. The term was coined by psychologist James J. Gibson to refer to his theory that objects have intrinsic usability due to their physical properties, regardless of human interpretation.
However, affordance did not originally refer to product design; Donald Norman appropriated and popularized the term for use in design with his work The Design of Everyday Things originally published in 1988. While Norman, a cognitive psychologist, worked with Gibson, he proposes an alternative definition. Norman’s view differs from Gibson’s in that it is the relationship between the object’s innate characteristics and the user’s capabilities and experiences that determines how the object can be used.
Literature:
林銘煌. 產品造形中的符號與符碼. 設計學報第5卷第2期 , 1989.12
鄭仕弘、林盛宏、林銘煌(2010). Operation follows meanings-以雙重隱喻之燈具探索語意式操作脈絡. 設計學報，15(3)， 1-19
Jean-François Petiota, Bernard Yannou. Measuring consumer perceptions for the development of product semantics. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics · June 2004
Martina Maria Keitsch. A postmodernist approach to product semantics. 2014
One of the first companies to actively apply product semantics was Philips in the 1980s. A successful product of this strategy was the “Rolling Radio”, where the designers focused on communicating its mobility with speaker grills shaped like moving soundwaves and a passing resemblance to a motorcycle.
The theory of affordance was developed independently from product semantics. The term was coined by psychologist James J. Gibson to refer to his theory that objects have intrinsic usability due to their physical properties, regardless of human interpretation.
However, affordance did not originally refer to product design; Donald Norman appropriated and popularized the term for use in design with his work The Design of Everyday Things originally published in 1988. While Norman, a cognitive psychologist, worked with Gibson, he proposes an alternative definition. Norman’s view differs from Gibson’s in that it is the relationship between the object’s innate characteristics and the user’s capabilities and experiences that determines how the object can be used.
Literature:
林銘煌. 產品造形中的符號與符碼. 設計學報第5卷第2期 , 1989.12
鄭仕弘、林盛宏、林銘煌(2010). Operation follows meanings-以雙重隱喻之燈具探索語意式操作脈絡. 設計學報，15(3)， 1-19
Jean-François Petiota, Bernard Yannou. Measuring consumer perceptions for the development of product semantics. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics · June 2004
Martina Maria Keitsch. A postmodernist approach to product semantics. 2014
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